CHAPTER 1
1.1 BACKGROUND
The word ethics was derived from the Greek word “ethos” meaning “character”. Philosophers generally agree that, the closest synonyms of the word ethics is morality derived from the Latin word “moralis”, meaning “customs”. Therefore, ethics can be defined as moral principles and recognized rules of conduct regarding a particular class of human action.
Every society has written or unwritten rules of conduct that guide interaction within the community. These rules prescribe generally accepted moral behaviour that members of the community are expected to uphold. This prescribed standard of behaviour is called ethics. Dennis and Merrill (1991) define ethics as “a branch of philosophy concerned with the general nature of morals and specific moral choices that people make in relationship with others.” (p.1) According to Eric Otenyo, an associate professor of politics and international affairs, “ethics are rules of behaviour on the part of those serving the public or in offices of public interest”. Ethics has to do with ‘rights’ and ‘wrong’. (Otenyo, 1994, p.1)
Ethical standards include standards relating to rights, such as the right to life, the right to freedom from injury, and the right to privacy. Such standards are adequate standards of ethics because they are supported by consistent and well-founded reasons.
Journalistic ethics involves applying the standards of the profession to the daily rule of providing information to the public. Jeanette Minnie, a South African citizen and an international Freedom of Expression and Media consultant believes that journalistic code of ethics is a “voluntary contract between journalists and the rest of the society” and it serves as an “assessment tool” (Ukpabi, 2001, p.3). If there is a social contract, then journalists owe the society a duty to present the news in an objective and accurate manner and avoid sensationalism that has characterized media work. Journalists have the duty to tell the truth, treat the audience as well as sources, with fairness and respect and provide an important link between affairs of government and the public. Some journalists blatantly disregard people’s right to privacy. Others engage in profanities and obscenities that do not promote national and cultural values. Many present their opinions as facts and do not present divergent views on issues. Plagiarism, professional dishonesty and social responsibility are all areas that some journalists are guilty of. However, “There are some journalists who strive to practice ‘responsible journalism’ and become victims for their insistence of the codes. It is in the interests of the public and the media that the highest journalistic standards are maintained because “mass communication is communal activity” (Karikari, 1996, p.37). This will ensure a well- informed citizenry who can make informed decisions and contribute effectively to governance.
Informing and enlightening the public is a difficult task. Newspaper work is an adventure, so full of fresh expectation and experiences. It is based upon firmly disciplined routine, because “getting the paper out on time is paramount and this can be done only if there is a definite work pattern existing in all departments.” (Karikari, 1996, p.38) In spite of the existence of this guide, journalists have been brought before the complaints settlement committee of the NMC on allegations of ethical breaches among others.
Although the media is to act as watchdog of society, some media practitioners abuse the role by using the media platform to hold their readers or audiences’ hostage. Though the media is given the freedom to report on any case, they should remember that, the constitution is different from the code of ethics, though the constitution covers everything. The framers of the 1992 Constitution were very clear in their minds when they guaranteed the freedom and independence of the media. Article 162 Clause 3 says that “there shall be no impediments to the establishment of private press or media; and in particular, there shall be no law requiring any person to obtain a license as a prerequisite to the establishment or operation of a newspaper, journal or other media for mass communication or information”. (1992 Constitution, p.112).
The same chapter of the 1992 Constitution, freedom and independence of the media guarantees that “all agencies of the mass media shall, at all times, be free to uphold the principles, provisions and objectives of this Constitution, and shall uphold the responsibility and accountability of the government to the people of Ghana”. (Article 162:5,).
A section of the media that uses the power of the media to blackmail and distort issues in society must be feared and this group poses as a danger to media freedom.
This is because ethical commitment is the cornerstone of any effort to define or redefine and strengthen the journalist’s role to serve the public good.
Journalists must understand their roles better and pay particular attention to their sources in the search for the truth, verification of the fact, balanced treatment of the various positions, appropriate use of language and strong story telling.
The Ghana Journalists Association (GJA) code of ethics was established on 15th August 1949 at a time when politics in the then former British colony of the Gold Coast was at its peak and the minds of many media practitioners and ordinary citizens were filled with events of ‘nationalist’ struggle. It is significant to note that a number of the “nationalist leaders” were journalists who employed the power of the pen to propagate their ideas and vision of independence for the then Gold Coast. At the time of its formation, it was called Africa Press Association and was set up to provide the indigenous media practitioner with an alternative to the colonial press. GJA has become an umbrella organization representing Ghanaian Journalists. The GJA is registered as a professional body on the board of the National Media Commission (NMC), whose main aim and objective is to promote high journalistic standards, defend press freedom and galvanize the media to protect democracy and instigate national development. In its activities, GJA tends to create solidarity among Ghanaian Journalists and with other journalists both in Ghana and abroad. To realize these objectives, the Association continues to organize workshops/seminars and lectures as part of its continuous education programme to help improve the performance of journalists.
In 1994, the association developed a Code of Ethics for journalists. Aside the constitution, the GJA has the code of ethics which has been drawn up as a ready reference guide and is applicable to members in the state-owned media, the private media and local freelance journalists. The code outlines the standards which journalists should meet. The code is to guide journalists. There are seventeen articles in the GJA code of ethics and each is to ensure that members adhere to the highest ethical standards. The code provides a frame of reference to the National Executive and Disciplinary Committee and members of the association when it becomes necessary to initiate disciplinary actions against any member who flouts any article of the code. The code is meant to ensure that members adhere to the highest ethical standards, professional competence and good behaviour in carrying out their duties.
As the fourth estate of the realm, the public expect the media to play their watchdog role. They should do this with a high sense of responsibility without infringing on the rights of individuals and the society in general. (GJA, 2008)
Every individual has a right to freedom of opinion and expression. The United Nations in 1948 passed the universal declaration of human rights which provides for the right to freedom of opinion and expression for everyone. This is an underlining factor which has influenced a number of governments. This right to freedom of opinion and expression invariably manifest itself in the media.
Journalism is treated as a communication profession. “Journalism is seen as the main or side profession of people concerned with gathering, sighting, evaluating and spreading of news or commenting on current affairs” (Kunczik & Pruys 1976, p.146). By this definition entertainment is left out completely. However, Donsbach (1978) stated that a journalist is someone involved in shaping the content of mass media output, be it gathering, evaluating, sighting, processing or disseminating news, comment or entertainment.
The practice of Journalism in the Gold Coast, now Ghana was limited to the nineteenth centuries. The first newspaper according to K.B.A Jones Quartey (1974) was established by British colonial master Sir Charles McCarthy, the first crown governor of Gold Coast, now Ghana, in 1822. The first print publications were The Royal Gold Coast Gazette and Commercial Intelligencer which was produced in Cape Coast.
The handwritten paper made its debut appearance on Tuesday April 21, 1822. The colonial government used the newspaper largely to consolidate and extend its sphere of influence and authority in West Africa. According to K.B.A Jones Quartey, The Royal Gold Coast Gazette and Commercial Intelligencer ceased publication in 1825 because its founder Sir Charles McCarthy was killed in a battle between the Ashanti’s and the British. (Quartey, 1974, pp.6-12)
In 1854, The Accra Herald and the Manuscript handwritten newspaper were launched by Charles and Edmund Bannerman both Africans.
On March 24, 1874, James Hutton Brew of Dunkwa established Gold Coast first African owned fully printed newspaper called Gold Coast Times which was produced in Cape Coast and lasted from March 1874 to November 1885.
Journalism exists to monitor and evaluate events. This is because they have the freedom to operate without fear and favour. Of late, journalists are not seen as informers, educators or even entertainers but rather they are seen as people who cause trouble and always turn the truth upside down. This perception has resulted in some journalist subjected to beatings while working and others are not granted interviews when they go to certain places. In every profession, there is good and bad and journalism is no exception.
In Ghana, there are about eight hundred (800) newspapers both privately owned and state owned. Out of this number, there are only two state owned, namely; Daily Graphic and Ghanaian Times. The NMC’s data collections for 2003-2006 registered newspapers show that, one hundred and eighty five (185) newspapers have registered with the NMC. From 2007-2010, five hundred and eighty (580) newspapers registered. As at now, only forty two have registered with them. (NMC, 2011)
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The National Consultative Council of GJA in pursuance of creating high journalistic standards in the country adopted a code of ethics in July 1994 at Sunyani to guide journalists in their daily reportage of news events.
The powerful nature of journalism as a tool for attitudinal change both negatively or positively has necessitated questions of whether the GJA code of ethics reflects on the practices of journalism today in Ghana.
An example is the unprofessionalism on the part of some journalists and sections of the media which has contributed to eroding public goodwill towards the media. They are manifested in ethical violations in the form of unsubstantiated allegations, over-sensationalism of headlines and lack of crosschecking. The culprits include journalists working for state and privately owned media. The misconduct of some journalists came about the GJA code of ethics.
The question is, does the press perform the situation out of control? Is the press in Ghana performing according to laid down codes? What is the extent of ethical violations of the press in Ghana? Is the situation of control? It is against this background that the study seeks to ascertain how the GJA code of ethics is adhered to, how frequently ethics are violated and whether the print media journalists are practicing conforming to their professional ethics.
1.3 GENERAL OBJECTIVE
To assess the use of the GJA code of ethics in the practice of journalism among print media journalists.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
To find out the level of awareness of the GJA code of ethics among print media journalists.
To find out how print media journalists view the code of ethics.
To investigate whether print media journalists apply the provisions of the GJA code of ethics in their work.
To ascertain the comparative rate of violation in the selected newspapers, Daily Graphic and Daily Guide.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
There is controversy about whether journalists of today practice what the GJA code of ethics says. Sometimes, journalists fabricate stories; others use sensational headlines to sell their newspapers whilst others invade on people’s privacy. These acts do not play any significant role in nation building. The study seeks to assess the professionalism of journalists as far as the GJA code of ethics is concerned and to bring fore the essence of ethical journalism in the print media industry.
CHAPTER 2
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
This part looks at theories that guide the study and other materials that are related to the research.
Many studies have been done on the powers and responsibilities of the press and how they abide by their ethics.
Gyasiwaa (2007) researched on the issue, "People’s Perception about Journalism Practice". Her objectives were to find out if people were satisfied with modern journalism practice, why people think journalists are not objective in their reportage and whether modern journalists were promoting democracy.
Her purpose was to find out whether people thought journalists promote democracy or cause problems both to the government and its citizens and also find measures suggested in correcting situation.
Her instrument for data collection was questionnaires. According to her, questionnaires are considered appropriate because they permit respondents to take home and have the needed time to read and understand before answering them. She asked questions like; do you think journalists have knowledge about their code of ethics? She randomly chose 50 respondents from Nungua.
Her theoretical framework was the agenda setting and magic bullet theories.
The questionnaire she used on whether journalists have knowledge about their code of ethics is similar to my work. In her findings, she stated that, most people think journalists are ignorant and do not know much about their ethics, this is why I settled on finding out whether print media journalists are breaching the GJA code of ethics.
Boateng (2006) worked on, "Professional Ethics in the Ghanaian Media". His objectives were to determine whether Daily Graphic and Daily Guide had differences and similarities in dealing with matters on ethics, to find out which articles of the GJA code of ethics was frequently flouted by practitioners, which newspaper violated ethics more than the other and which ethics was most flouted. To me the second and fourth objective are almost the same. It could have been put together to convey the same meaning instead of repeating them.
He used content analysis to find out the coverage of news in Daily Guide and Daily Graphic in terms of space, content and placement of their news since both are print media.
His findings were that, the private newspaper was most interested in political issues than any other issues and exaggerated in their reportage. He concluded by stating that, the privately owned media violated the journalism ethics more.
He used the Libertarian theory of the press and Uses and Gratification theory as his theoretical framework.
Boateng’s objectives are almost the same as mine. He also used Daily Graphic and Daily Guide in his findings. He sought to find out which newspapers flouted the ethics most. The only difference is that, my research is to compare whether journalists in Daily Graphic and Daily Guide practice according to the laid down ethics and how effective the ethics are but his was on the professional ethics we have in the Ghanaian media, whether it is good or bad to the Ghanaian journalist.
Hagan (2008) did a study on “Journalism Practice in Ghana from 2000 to 2005.” His objectives were to trace a brief background of journalism practice in Ghana, to find out how many people have acquired professional training to become journalists, how many people have entered journalism as a calling, if journalists are the least respected people in the society, to assess future prospects of journalism in Ghana and the privileges and immunities of journalists.
The population of his research was eighty (80) media men who practiced journalism from 2000 to 2005 and were still practicing. His reason for choosing them was that, his study focused on the practice of journalism in Ghana from 2000 to 2005.
Purposive sampling, a non-probability sampling method was used as the data sampling method because the media men were interviewed for a specific purpose. According to him, the purposive sampling was uncomplicated to use because it was easy to gather the exact information needed at each media house because of its convenience. He used questionnaires but did not state the questions.
Journalists were divided into eight groups. Each consisted of ten journalists from different media houses. 25% out of 80% said journalism is a calling. They were of the view that journalism is a stressful job and people would only practice it if they have interest in it. 41% were in support that it’s a profession. Their reason was that if it was not regarded as a profession, then the need for setting up a professional body would not have been necessary but because it is regarded as a profession that is why GJA was set up just like any other professional body. 14% said it was a calling or a profession. Their observation was that without a calling one will not go through stress at their respective media houses since the desire is there and with a calling it motivates one to strive to deliver the job professionally. He concluded by stating that, journalism is a profession and not a calling.
Hagan’s study can be related to mine in the sense that, every professional body has codes of ethics that guides them. If journalism is a profession that they have decided to practice, why is it that they flout the ethics? Is it that the ethics are too many to follow or is not relevant to them.
Agbesi (2007) worked on “A Comparative Analysis of News Coverage in the Daily Graphic for 2006”. His hypotheses were who is a professional journalist? Is the GJA’s definition of professional journalist the same as the widely accepted definition? Which activities in the media are described as unprofessional, is the code of ethics the only parameters in determining unprofessionalism in the media and is the press in Ghana performing up to the laid down professional codes?
His objectives were to trace a brief background of the journalism history in Ghana, to find out how many people have acquired professional training to become journalists, the extent of ethical violations by the press in Ghana, who is a professional journalist, which activities of the media amounts to professionalism, whether the code of ethics is the only parameters in determining unprofessionalism in the media, whether journalism is a calling or profession, how often were ethics violated in the selected newspapers and did privately owned newspapers flout the code of ethics more than state owned newspapers.
He used content analysis. According to him, content analysis would be used to assess the professional competence of the journalists as evidenced in the rise of analysis appearing in the various newspapers and the level of presentation of issues of public interest and concern.
He then stated why these are often violated. He stated that, journalists were ignorant of the code of ethics and others faced financial difficulties.
2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In the book, Four Theories of the Press, Wilbur Schramm, Fred Siebert, and Theodore Peterson (1963) present four different models of the media. Two of them are relevant to the Western media today, the social responsibility system and the Libertarian system. “The former has its roots in mid-twentieth century society and revolves around ethics in the media, but has always existed as an ideal; the latter is more prevalent today, and by nature threatens media ethics.” (Schramm, Siebert & Peterson, 1963, p.1)
The theoretical framework in which this study is based is the libertarian theory. The word liberty comes from the Latin root liber, which means "free." The theory was developed in the 17th Century based on writings of some three philosophers namely; John Milton, John Mill and John Locke in England in 1688. These writings were meant to criticise the authoritarian theory. With the authoritarian theory, the press operated under government in power. They were made to report things that are in favour of them. They were submissive in their reportage.
Historically, the press first functioned from the top down, as house organs of the few who directed the opinions of the common people. In English common law, the press always belonged to the King. This is called the authoritarian theory of the press. With the demise of monarchy, the press came to adopt a role as partner in the search for truth, a kind of free marketplace for ideas and opinions, devoid of government control. This is the type of press that was desired by the founding fathers for the United States. It's called the libertarian theory of the press.
Libertarianism is a political philosophy that upholds individual liberty, especially freedom of expression and action. The libertarian theory of the press is that information is knowledge, and knowledge is power. This theory takes the philosophical view that, man is rational and able to discern between truth and falsehood and, therefore, can choose between a better and worse alternative. Man is capable of determining his own destiny, and given all the facts will make the right choice. (Weaver,2007, p.46)
In recent years, with media mega-mergers, some say the press has fallen back into the hands of a few. Five giant publishers control the print media; another five companies produce all movies; and no more than three people control the broadcast media (radio and television) in America. Not only do monopolies invite government intrusion, but they make it harder for the press to be a free marketplace of ideas. The best that can be accomplished are guarantees of equal time, and a professional sense of obligation to responsibly see that all sides are fairly presented in objective journalism. This is part of the social responsibility theory of the press. Libertarian theory and social responsibility theory are not incompatible. (Ward, 2009, p.8)
Libertarian theory rests on a concept of negative liberty, "freedom from", or more precisely "freedom from external constraint." The theory enables people to realise their potential, and since news is about people making the news, the press reminds us that society has not grown to an entity of greater importance than the people comprising it. Whether or not we regard free press as a natural or inalienable right depends upon how much we assume that people desire to know the truth, and will be set free by it. English poet John Milton said that people should have unlimited access to the ideas and thoughts of others in order to exercise their talent at reasoning between right and wrong. Milton also said that truth had a unique power of survival when allowed to assert itself freely and openly.(Bollinger, 1991, p.29)
The function of the press is to protect the people’s liberties and rights, and to inform the public so they can participate as citizens in democratic self-government. The libertarian theory prefers a privately owned news media that is maximally free to inform citizens and criticize public policy, as well as act as a watchdog on authorities. The right to publish and express oneself freely is not a prerogative of the state or a government. It is a fundamental right of free individuals. The liberal theory argues that a free marketplace of ideas, while it may cause harm over the short term, is the best safeguard in the long run for a free and liberal society.
The purpose of the libertarian theory is to inform, entertain, sell, as well as discover truth and check on government. Also, the libertarian theory of the press centered on the idea that, the individual should be free to do whatever they like. The freedom of the press has made them violate the ethics. (Siebert, Peterson & Schramm, 1956, p.3)
This theory is very relevant to my study because, the theory is based on an assumption that man is intelligent and knows what is good for them. For this reason individuals are given the freedom to read different publications and make up their minds. The print media journalists over use the freedom to the extent that they forget they serve as a liaison between the government and the citizenry. Though the press under this theory enjoys total freedom, they are to cross-check their facts. Journalists should also remember that they are controlled by limited restraints designed to protect the rights of the individuals.
Another theory is the Social Responsibility Theory. The Social Responsibility Theory, first developed in the 1940s by Robert Maynard Hutchins, is still a guiding principle for the media today. The social responsibility theory is the only modification of the libertarian theory and it came out in 1947. The cardinal point about the social responsibility theory is that freedom and responsibility go hand in hand and that the press should be periodically reminded of its responsibility. It attempts to balance the liberal stress on the freedom of the press. It argues that such freedoms of a powerful news media must be balanced by social responsibilities. Journalists have a duty to provide well-contextualized news in a comprehensive manner. They have a duty to provide a diverse forum of views and values. They have a duty to go beyond entertaining news consumers and to provide a core of in-depth analysis on the most serious issues. (Pitner, www.answers.com)
The press must operate in freedom but it must do so in a responsible manner. In the late nineteenth century, certain flaws were identified in the libertarian theory. Out of such flaws came about the social responsibility theory. Such flaws were that the press endangered public morals, the press invaded the privacy of individuals without just cause, and the press had been subservient to big business and at times allowed advertisers to control editorial policies and content. (Bediako, 2010, p.16).
The social responsibility theory was practiced in the US in the 20th century. However, social responsibility goes beyond "objective" reporting to "interpretive" reporting. A truthful, complete account of the news is not necessarily enough today, notes the Commission on the Freedom of the Press: "It is no longer enough to report the fact truthfully. It is now necessary to report the truth about the fact." Today's complex world often necessitates analysis, explanation, and interpretation. (Coleman, www.suite101.com)
In the social responsibility theory of the press, the media is driven to benefit the public. It expects journalists to answer society's need for truth, requires an open and diverse debate on public issues, and honest updates of current events. In this model, media ethics is automatic because the press is free to serve its purpose for the public, as opposed to special interest groups or advertisers. Another condition of the social responsibility model is that news reporting cannot be dependent on groups that may encourage bias and unethical practices in exchange for financial support. The GJA code of ethics also states that, “in collecting and disseminating information, the journalist should bear in mind his or her responsibility to the public at large the various interest in society”. (GJA code of ethics, Article 2)
The purpose was to inform, entertain, sell, but also to raise conflict to the plane of discussion. The Social Responsibility Theory claimed that the media could be self-regulating by adhering to the facts that media has obligations to fulfill to a democratic society in order to preserve freedom, media should be self-regulated, media should have high standards for professionalism and objectivity, as well as truth and accuracy, media should reflect the diversity of the cultures they represent and the public has a right to expect professional performance. (The proponents of this theory had strong faith in the public’s ability to determine right and wrong, and take action to preserve the public good when necessary.) (http://www.answers.com)
The Social Responsibility Theory does not only fall upon the reporters and producers of media. The responsibility also falls to the consumers to become media literate and maintain high, yet reasonable expectations of the media. In theory, if these things happen, there will be no need for government intervention.
The Social Responsibility Theory was set forth as the ideal way for the media to conduct business. Over the years since its introduction, this theory has met with much criticism as well as support. It has become the standard for United States media practices. It has also set the standards for much of the currently accepted media ethics. (Reeves http://faculty.ncwc.edu/mstevens/)
Using the social responsibility theory of the press is very essential to my research to the extent that every journalist is responsible for any information he or she brings to the public. Though they have been granted the freedom to do any reportage, it is supported by the code of ethics.
There is a bit of tension in both theories. It contradicts. There is much freedom given to the press then later this freedom is being governed by responsibilities and rules. Ethics are there to check people in every activity they do.
These theories are very important. This is because, with a critical and analytical look at them, it could be seen that the GJA ethics was drafted from them.
2.3 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
Code of ethics: They are rules and regulations that govern journalists.
Print media journalist: Journalist who writes for newspapers
Chapter 3
3.1 METHODOLOGY
This chapter talks about the methods that would be used in this study. It covers the population used in the research, research design, survey, sampling size and data collection.
3.2 Research Design
A research design is a structural plan for conducting a test of the researcher’s hypotheses or research questions. Research design is the logical sequence that connects a researcher’s claim, data or evidence. (Merrigan & Huston, 2004. p.48)
In research design, you develop the intellectual framework of design, the proposed methods, measurement instruments, or procedures that are inappropriate for the research problem.
Research designs are concerned with turning research questions into a testify project. The best design depends on your research questions. Every design has its positive or negative sides. (Ader, Mellenbergh & Hand, 2008, p.15)
There are various strengths and weaknesses associated with different research designs. Some advantages or strengths of a research design are, they articulate the design's distinctive investigative and creative processes, stimulate debate about design and its manifestations in knowledge, practice and culture, anticipate opportunities for realising design ideas and prototypes in industry, community and professional contexts.
Inadequate appropriate controls, the equipment to be used is outdated or inappropriate and the statistical analysis has not received adequate consideration, or is unlikely to yield accurate and clear-cut method. These forms part of the weaknesses of a research design.
This study will use a survey design. Surveying is a research method that we use to get information about certain groups of people who are representative of some larger group of people of interest to us. (Berger, 1933, p.187)
Survey is a type of ex post facto design, which is a study designed to determine what the pre-existing causal conditions are between groups. Surveys require an interaction to respondents and are likely the most widely used research design.
Surveys are good for producing precise designs of mass populations. It also allows for the collection of a great deal of data from a large percentage of people. Surveys use questionnaires and can be used to describe or predict phenomena based on their results. (Davis, 2005, p.146)
On the negative side, there is a risk that people’s answers to questionnaires item may not reflect their true feelings or those subsequent actions. Surveys can also seem superficial when compared with field research.
3.3 Population
Every research must consist of the number of people or units the researcher is using for his or her study other known as population. Population is the entire set of cases that the researcher is attempting to represent with a data sample. (Merrigan & Huston, 2004, p.326)
Survey population is a large collection of population members from which the sample is not drawn; it is usually the subset of the target the population. (Huston, 2004, p.329)
“A population is all the members of a defined category of elements such as people, events or objects”. (Sproull, 1988, p.57)
There are about hundred (100) journalists working at Daily Graphic. Journalists because they report, write stories and edit for a newspaper, of which there are about sixty (60) in Accra and the remaining forty (40) spread across the nine regions in Ghana excluding attachment personnel and national service persons. Graphic Communicators publishes seven newspapers, Graphic Sports, Graphic Nsempa, Junior Graphic, Graphic Showbiz, The Mirror, Graphic business and others.
As at now, there are about thirty (30) national service personnel working at Graphic and twelve (12) interns. For sports, showbiz and mirror, there are about ten (10) journalists reporting for each newspaper. (Interview with the personal assistant of Daily Graphic, 31st May, 2011)
Daily Guide has a total number of forty seven (47) journalists. It has other sub newspapers like Business Guide, News one and Young Blazers. They have segmented their reporters into various types. In Education, there are two reporters, Entertainment three, Business five, Court two, Parliament two, General four, Health one, Photo two, Crime two and Cartoonist one. They have nineteen reporters at Takoradi, Bolgatanga, Tamale, Koforidua, Obuasi, Kumasi, Techiman, Tema and Cape Coast and the remaining are news editors and deputy editors. There is only one national service person and no attachment person. (Interview with the editor of Daily Guide, 3rd June, 2011)
With Daily Graphic journalists being more than the Daily Guide, the population will not be the same for both. Taking Accra reporters for both newspapers, Daily Guide has twenty four whilst Daily Graphic, about sixty.
In both selected newspapers, there are a total number of one hundred forty seven (147) journalists.
The sample size of this research would be fifty (50) journalists. There would be thirty (30) and twenty (20) journalists for Daily Graphic and Daily Guide respectively.
3.4 Sampling Technique
A sample is the selected number of study unit from the population. (Varkevisser, Pathmanatha & Brownlee, 1991, p.14)
Sampling is the process of selecting unit example, people, and organizations from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen.
The process of sampling involves the selection of a group of individuals or elements from a population. (Anderson, 1999, p.149)
Sampling is that part of a statistical practice concerned with the selection of subset of individuals from within a population especially for the purpose of making predictions based on statistical inference. (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002, p.120)
For sampling, there are two types of sampling methods, probability and non-probability sampling or random or non-random sampling. For the probability sampling method chances of being selected are unknown. Examples include simple random sampling, stratified, cluster, systematic and others. With non-probability sampling, choosing is deliberate. Examples are quota, accidental, purposive and convenience sampling.
In sampling, the main objective is to select a portion of the universe that the results may or could be extended to the whole population (Kumekpor, 2002, p.137)
This research will be based on a non-probability sampling method using purposive sampling. A purposive sampling method is a method in which units are chosen based on a reason. According to Smith, purposive samples “intentionally focus on the target group to the exclusion of other groups”. (Smith, 1988, p.85)
I would want to find out a wide range of experienced journalists in both newspapers.
3.5 Data Collection Method
Data collection is a term used to describe a process of preparing and collecting data. The purpose of data collection is to obtain information to keep on record, to make decisions about important issues, to pass information on to others. Primarily, data is collected to provide information regarding a specific topic.
Self-administrated questionnaires of fifty would be issued out.
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. (Mellenbergh, 2008, p.221)
There are various types of questionnaires; structured non disguised questionnaires, structured disguised questionnaires, non structured non disguised questionnaires, and non structured disguised questionnaires. Structured non disguised questionnaires are questions that are listed in pre-arranged order and respondents are told about the purpose of collecting information. For the structured- disguised questionnaires, questions are listed in a pre-arranged order and respondents are not told about the purpose of conducting the survey. Non structured non disguised questionnaire are not structured, researcher is free to ask questions in any sequence he/she wants and respondents are told about the purpose of collecting information. Non structured disguised questionnaire, questions are not structured, researcher is free to ask questions in any sequence he/she wants and respondents are not told about the purpose of conducting survey.
There are also types of questions in research namely; closed ended questions, in which the respondent is asked to select from a fixed list of replies and respondent has to choose any one of the options given. The other type is the, open-ended question which is designed to encourage a full, meaningful answer using the subject's own knowledge and/or feelings. It is the opposite of a closed-ended question. (Kreuter, Presser & Roger, 2009, pp. 847-865)
I will use both open and close ended questionnaires because I want to find the views of Daily Graphic and Daily Guide on their knowledge of the GJA code of ethics. If I use one- on- one interview, I would not get the exact number of journalists and they might not open up in answering the questions. The questionnaires would include both close and open ended questions. This is because some questions demand a short or single-word answer, whilst others tend to be more objective and less leading.
3.6 Data Analysis
The reason for using purposive sampling is based on particular information that I need, the chosen journalists will be relevant to give the information. Also, it would be easier to get the exact information needed.
For the purpose of analysis data obtained, construction of simple tables and drawing of charts will be used. These tables would express responses of respondents in frequencies and percentages.
CHAPTER 4
4.1 DATA ANALYSIS
FINDINGS AND DATA PRESENTATION
This chapter deals with all the responses and findings of respondents.
A total number of fifty (50) journalists were sampled. 50 questionnaires were distributed to both media houses. Thirty questionnaires was distributed at Daily Graphic whilst 20 was distributed Daily Guide.
The tables below show the frequencies and percentages of Daily Guide journalists’ response.
Out of 20 questionnaires issued out, only seventeen (17) were filled.
DAILY GUIDE
GENDER FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE (%)
MALE 6 30%
FEMALE 11 55%
UNFILLED 3 15%
TOTAL 20 100%
Table 1
Table 1 shows the sex distribution among the respondents at Daily Guide. Six (6) were males representing 30% of the sample while eleven (11) were females representing 55% of the sample, three (3) were not filled.
Fig.1
AGE
TOTAL PERCENTAGE
20-25 years
10 50%
26-30 years
4 20%
36-40 years
2 10%
46-50 years
1 5%
Unfilled
3 15%
Table 2
The table above shows the age distribution among respondents. Out of the total sample size, three were not answered representing 15%. There were no respondents for ages 31-35, 41-45, 51-55 and over 56. 10 of the respondents were between the ages of 20-25 years representing 50%, 4 of the respondents were between the ages 26-30 years, 2 of the respondents were between the ages 36-40 representing 10% and 1 respondent was between the ages 46-5 0years representing 5%.
Fig. 2
WORK EXPERIENCE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
Up to a year 9 45%
1-5 years 4 20%
6-10 years 3 15%
11-20 years 1 5%
Table 3
The table above represents the findings of the work experience of the respondents at Daily Guide. This was to measure the number of years spent in the field and find the correlation between working experience and the use of the code of ethics. 45% of the respondents had worked up to a year, 20% had worked between 1-5 years, between 6-10 years were 15% and 5% were between 11-20 years.
Fig. 3
Eight (8) respondents of Daily Guide had their journalism studies at Ghana Institute of Journalism (G.I.J), three (3) studied at Jayee University College, one (1) had his at African University College of Communications (AUCC), two (2) had their studies at Manifold Tutorial College (MTC), two (2) studied at school of Communications, Legon and one (1) at Rabodef.
All the seventeen (17) respondents were aware of the GJA code of ethics, but ten (10) were not registered members of GJA representing 50% whilst the remaining ten (10) were registered members representing 35%.
Also, 10 had applied the provisions lately representing 50% whilst 7 had not applied representing 35%.
PRINT MEDIA APPLICATION OF ETHICS FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
YES 7 35%
NO 8 40%
NO RESPONSE 2 10%
Table 4
The table above shows that, 40% of the respondents thought that the print media journalists do not apply the code of ethics in their practice, 35% thought otherwise whilst 10% did not express their views.
Fig. 4
DAILY GRAPHIC
Thirty (30) questionnaires were distributed but only Twenty nine (29) were filled.
GENDER FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE (%)
MALE 17 56.7%
FEMALE 12 40%
UNFILLED 1 3.3%
TOTAL 30 100%
Table 5
Table 1 shows the sex distribution among the respondents at Daily Graphic. Seventeen (17) were males representing 56.7% of the total sample population while twelve (12) were females representing 40% of the total sample population, one (1) was not filled.
Fig. 5
AGE
TOTAL PERCENTAGE
20-25 years 3 10%
26-30 years 3 10%
31-35 years 4 13.3%
36-40 years 6 20%
41-45 years 6 20%
46-50 years 2 6.7%
51-55 years 5 16.7%
Table 6
The table above shows the age distribution among respondents. Out of the total sample size, one was not answered representing 3.3%. 3 of the respondents were between the ages of 20-25years representing 10%, 3 of the respondents were between the ages 26-30 years representing 10%, 4 of the respondents were between the ages of 31-35 years representing 13.3%, 6 of the respondents were between the ages 36-40 representing 20%, 6 of the respondents were between the ages of 41-46 representing 20%, 2 respondents were between the ages of 46-50 years representing 6.7% and 5 of the respondents were between the ages 51-55 years representing 16.7%.
Fig. 6
WORK EXPERIENCE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
Up to a year 3 10%
1-5 years 8 26.7%
6-10 years 8 26.7%
11-20 years 4 13.3%
21-25 years 2 6.7%
26-30 years 2 6.7%
Over 30 years 2 6.7%
Table 7
The table above represents the findings of the work experience of the respondents at Daily Graphic. This was to measure the number of years spent in the field and find the correlation between working experience and the use of the code of ethics. 10% of the respondents had worked up to a year, 26.7% had worked between 1-5 years, between 6-10 years were 26.7% , 13.3% were between 11-20 years, between 21-25 years were 6.7%, 6.7% were also between the ages of 26-30 years and over 30 years was 6.7%.
Sixteen (16) respondents of Daily Graphic had their journalism studies at G.I.J, eleven (11) had theirs at School of Communications, one (1) had their studies at Jayee and one (1) at Paris International School of Journalism, France.
Out of twenty nine (29) respondents, twenty eight (28) were aware of the GJA code of ethics and one (1) was not aware of it. Twenty-two (22) were registered members representing 73.3% whilst the remaining seven (7) were not registered members representing 23.3%.
Also, 13 had applied the provisions lately representing 43.3% whilst 16 had not representing 53.3%.
PRINT MEDIA APPLICATION OF ETHICS FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
YES 11 36.7%
NO 18 60%
Table 8
The table above shows that, 40% of the respondents thought that the print media journalists did not apply the code of ethics in their practice, 35% thought otherwise whilst 10% did not express their views.
Fig. 8
GENDER FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
MALE 23 46%
FEMALE 23 46%
UNFILLED 4 8%
TOTAL 50 100%
Table 9
The table above represents the sex distribution among the print media journalists of both state and privately owned media. 23 were males representing 46% of the total sample population, 23 were females representing 46%, 4 questionnaires were not filled representing 8%.
Fig. 9
PRINT MEDIA APPLICATION OF ETHICS FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
YES 26 52%
NO 18 36%
NO RESPONSE 2 4%
UNFILLED 4 8%
Table 10
Table 10 indicates the responses of both Daily Graphic and Daily Guide on their knowledge of whether print media journalists practice according to laid down ethics. 26 representing 52% views were yes, 18 representing 36% said no whilst 2 representing 4% were not filled and 4 representing 8% were not answered.
Fig. 10
Chapter 5
5.1 DISCUSSIONS
For Daily Guide, though all the seventeen respondents were aware of the GJA code of ethics, most of them had not read the ethics over a year; some did not remember the last time they read the ethics. Only two (2) out of seventeen respondents had read it some few days before.
Taking the privately owned newspaper, most of the journalists were not registered members of the GJA. They were just practicing it without being under any professional body or association. Registered members had not been in the association for long, either up to a year or between 1-5 years. Most journalists shared their views on how best they understood the ethics stating that, ethics was moral and professional guide that was effective to journalists, they were principles that guided journalists to work, the dos and don’ts of journalists and how they should go about it, guidelines for journalists, provisions to guide journalists, guide to put journalists on track, the framework by which journalists must conduct and go about their practice.
Ten (10) respondents accepted that they applied the ethics in their reportage. They stated that they were fair and not biased in their judgments, cross checked their information, did not use offensive pictures, they were objective in their reportage, did not accept bribes, respected human rights and privacy, did not use any sensational headline and made corrections were necessary.
Other respondents stated that the journalism ethics were not very effective because the ethics were not strictly enforced. Others expressed their views that journalists did not go according to the laid down ethics, the profession kept changing with different approaches and personal style and GJA members had abused the ethics.
Others stated that they were very effective because journalists adhered to it.
An aspect of the questionnaire also stated that respondents should state their views as to whether print media journalists apply the ethics in their practice. Those against the view stated that most journalists engaged themselves in yellow journalism, did not cross check their facts, did not go by the ethics, used sensational headlines, plagarise, used offensive words, they did not do any background check, used too many infractions, some rules were violated and ethics flouted. The views of those for the motion were that they considered the ethics before reporting, journalists processed it on a daily basis, violation of the ethics questions a practitioner’s profession, they had good reportage and they did the right thing. Both for and against responses were quite contradictory.
For Daily Guide either they sacked, warned, demoted or ask you to pay a fine when ethics was flouted.
Eleven (11) did not know of any journalist who had been punished for violating the ethics. Six (6) did know of some.
Their responses about journalists who flouted the ethics was they should be sacked from their work place, be warned for the first time, should resign, should be punished to deter others from engaging in such acts, should be suspended, counseled, made to pay huge sums of money or taken off their membership of GJA.
Daily Graphic respondents also had similar views. Only one person was not aware of the ethics. Large numbers of those who were aware of it had not read it for a year.
Twenty-two (22) respondents were registered members and had been in the association over a year now, whilst 7 were not members.
Their understanding of the ethics was to guide journalists to avoid unethical behaviour they carried out in their duties, conducts for journalists, rules and regulations for journalists, codes that guides journalists, they assist in the journalism field to do their work diligently knowing that it involves humans and societies, rules to govern journalists and laws for journalists to abide. Some said they did not understand it whilst others said they were quite effective.
For the state owned newspaper, only 13 had applied the provisions lately. What they did was that their information matched their pictures, did not suppress information, was fair and objective in reporting, made corrections, did not disclose their sources and checked both sides before reporting. The remaining 16 had not applied it.
To some, the journalism ethics was not so effective. Others stated that journalists did not apply it appropriately, most did not adhere to it and since they were laws it was difficult for them to be strong because journalists chose to observe them; they became obligated to observe them as a matter of personal principles and a way of showing professionalism and some journalists did things to favour themselves and refused to do what was expected of them. Some also stated that they were very effective to journalists because it helped improve quality, made journalists to be objective and responsible, regulated the activities of the journalist and made them more professional, and also made journalists work effectively.
18 respondents indicating 60% shared the same view as they thought print media journalists did not apply the ethics. Their reasons was that they did not cross check their facts, did not adhere to the ethics, were not sensitive when dealing with under aged, most front pages were sensational, did not consider the ethics, some thought they were not bound by it so they chose to abide by it, offensive reportage and most did not know about it. 11 views were yes indicating 36.7%. Their opinions were, journalists did not disclose their source, conducted themselves as the ethics says and state owned journalists were fair and objective to all sides of the story.
At Daily Graphic, responses were that, journalists are sacked, suspended, demoted, fined and warned when they flout any GJA ethics.
19 respondents said they knew about journalists who had been punished. State owned newspaper stated that journalists should be banned from practicing journalism, demoted, fined, sacked and warned. Also, their license be taken from them as members, GJA should add punishments to the ethics, journalists salaries should be reduced and made to pay more dues to the association, journalists should not be members of the association, stopped from practicing it for a while or banned from practicing for some time.
5.2 CONCLUSION
This study was concerned with the general views of privately owned and state owned newspapers on the topic. In any democratic state, journalists play a very vital role in the development of the country.
The findings show that, most state owned journalists were registered members of GJA, whilst a few of the privately owned were also registered members. Majority of journalists at both state and privately owned newspapers schooled at GIJ. Journalists working at the privately owned newspaper apply the ethics in their reportage. They also thought that all print media journalists do not apply the code of ethics. Unlike the state owned, most people confessed that they did not use the ethics in their reportage. They also thought that print media journalists do not apply the ethics in their practice.
In a nutshell, though most state owned print media journalists were registered members of the Ghana Journalists Association, they did not practice what the ethics says. But the privately owned print media journalists did that. The state owned did not consider the ethics in their reportage.
5.3 LIMITATIONS TO THE STUDY
In the process of the study, several difficulties were encountered which contributed to the limitations of the research.
To commence, there are over 50 print media in the country. Also, there are over 300 reporters of print in the country; therefore the responses from the 50 sampled cannot be used to represent the population of print media houses in Ghana to give a true reflection of what pertains on the field.
More print media house and reporters should have been added to the research.
Moreover, limited time was given to this study. The researcher needs ample time to complete the study.
Both state and privately owned media journalists were reluctant when it comes to filling questionnaires. Most questionnaires were misplaced so the researcher had to reprint another copy for them to answer.
The researcher also faced serious financial difficulties in printing out her work. This type of research required the researcher to have huge funding. Also, the researcher had to go to certain places to get information and collect data so as to have an understanding of the topic.
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
Taking a critical look at this study, it is recommended that the GJA would try to organize courses for journalists to brief them on the application of the ethical codes of conduct.
It is also recommended to media institutions. They should employ the teachings of ethics to their students before they practice it as a profession.
Also, journalists should take the responsibility to adhere to the values of the ethics and make every effort to achieve professionalism in their delivery.
5.5 SUGGESTIONS
I suggest that the GJA code of ethics should be taught at various communication schools to enable journalists get the basis of it to make their reportage authentic. Also, every journalist should register with the mother body, GJA and conduct themselves as the ethics says. There should also be a student GJA chapter at each communication institutes or universities to teach them the doctrines of a professional journalist and again have the sole membership with the mother body when registered in their institutes.
I am Josephine Araba Aidoo, a student of the Ghana Institute of Journalism. As part of my end of year project work, I would like to know your views on the practice of the Ghana Journalists Association (GJA) among print media journalists. Please express your opinion and tick where necessary. Thank You.
1. Gender Male Female
2. Place of work
Daily Graphic Daily Guide
3. Age 20-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50
51-55 over 56
4. How long have you been practicing journalism?
Up to a year 1-5 years 6-10 11-20 21-25 26-30
Over 30
5. Where did you study Journalism?
Jayee GIJ AUCC School of Communication
Other …………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Are you aware of the GJA code of ethics?
Yes No
If yes, please answer question7. If no continue with question 8
7. When was the last time you read the GJA code of ethics? A few days
Some weeks some months over a year
8. Are you a member of the GJA? Yes No
If yes, please move to question 9. If no continue with question 10
9. For how long? Up to a year 1-5 years 6-10 11-20 21-25
26-30 Over 30
10. How well do you understand Journalism ethics? ....................................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
11. Have you applied any of the provisions lately? Yes No
If yes please answer question 12. If no please move to question 13
12. What exactly did you do, explain. ……………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
13. How effective do you think journalism ethics are? ……………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
14. Do you think print journalists apply the code of ethics in their practice?
Yes No
If yes, what are your reasons …………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
If no, please explain……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
15. What are the sanctions against breaches of ethics at your newspaper?
Warning fine demotion sacking nothing
Other……………………………………………………………………
16. Do you know anyone who has ever been punished?
Yes No
17. What do you think should happen to journalists who flout the GJA code of ethics?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
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Emery, E., The Press and America, 2nd Edition, 1962
Gyasiwaa, A., People’s Perception about Journalism Ethics, 2007
Hagan L., Journalism Practice in Ghana from 2000 to 2005, 2008
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McQuail, D., Theories of Mass Communication, 2001
Mencher, M., News reporting and writing, 1991
Merrigan, G. Communications Research Methods, 2004
Pattern, J., Ferguson, D., Journalism Today, 4th Edition, 1993
Professor Jones, Press in Ghana, 1975
Quartey, J., Summary of the History of the Press in Ghana
Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, Journalism Studies volume1, 2010
Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, Media History, 2010
Vigah, J., Guide to Sports Journalism, 2008
ONLINE
faculty.ncwc.edu/mstevens/410/410lect09.htm, 25th May, 2011
http://faculty.ncwc.edu/mstevens/ 7th April, 2011
http://www.answers.com 7th April ,2011
http://www.answers.com/topic/social-responsibility-and-organisational.ethics, 7th April, 2011
www.ghananews agency.com 11th May, 2011
www.personal.psu.edu/...419/.../libertarian-theory-of-the-press.html 3rd June, 2011
www.suite101.com/content, 7th April, 2011
1992 Constitution, 28th March, 2011
Daily Graphic, 2011 10th May, 2011
Daily Guide, 2011 10th May, 2011
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